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CHAPTER 2. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF EUTROPHICATION

2.2. Global Societies and their Social and Cultural Aspects of Water (suite)

North America Regions

The United States of America and Canada installed public sewage systems in urban areas just following the European approach during the middle of the 19th century. However, suburban and rural areas installed the septic tank system for disposing wastewater from houses. Thus the coverage by public sewage over the nations is not high compared to northern European countries, which reached more than 95%. The septic tank system is effective to control microbial public health problems provided that the space between the houses is large enough to avoid seepage of contamination from the septic tank to a groundwater well. However, groundwater contamination by nitrate and other substances became an important problem. Because of the domination of the European culture in North America, except in Mexico, the water issues have been solved using a similar approach to that of Europe. However, using bottled water for drinking in North America is not as popular as in Europe, with the exception of Mexico.

The eutrophication issue is very important in lakes and reservoirs. Agricultural run-off and different point sources provide the nutrients for the eutrophication. North America, with the exception of Mexico, has many constructed reservoirs, and they are at a great risk from eutrophication. Mexico has its long civilization history represented by the Aztec civilization. Its geographical conditions vary from the central mountains to the coastal areas of the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. Natural lakes in mountain areas are facing eutrophication problems. In spite of its long history, Mexico introduced the Mediterranean water-related culture and is trying to solve the problem using the European approaches. Bottled water is important for safe drinking water in Mexico.

Central and South America Regions

Central and South America regions comprise a variety of geographical characteristics from Guatemala to Argentina, and from the Andes to the Amazon. The regions cover areas where water is abundant but also many semi-arid areas. Water-related cultures may differ among various countries depending on the availability of water. Native people developed their traditional water use and cultures. Old civilizations of Aztecs, Maya, Inca, etc., developed different religions but worship the Water God. Water is the key element for survival and sustainability of their society. Fertility of land can be brought with water and the blessing of the Sun God. However, safe and clean water is at present not easy to obtain in urban areas. Therefore the use of bottled water became popular in the regions, and was probably introduced by emigrants from the European continent. The emigrants brought to the regions Catholic Christianity that is at present the most influential religion. Water use and culture, as well as many other cultures, are similar to those of the Mediterranean regions.

Australia and New Zealand Regions

Anglo-Saxon and other emigrants developed water-related culture, which depends on the availability of water. The population of native people of Australia is small compared to that of emigrants. Therefore water use systems were basically developed in the manner of the western society. The Australian East Coast faces water scarcity in urban areas and eutrophication of water reservoirs. The Central part of Australia is arid. The Australian West Coast is semi-arid and faces water scarcity in developing urban areas. Water issues are similar to those of European and North American regions. New Zealand has relatively abundant water resources. Cattle and sheep raising is important to the economy but it generates nutrient loading to water bodies. However, native people are keeping the traditional use of water including catching fishes and shells in streams and coastal areas. Clean water in lakes and streams is an important issue between emigrants and native people in respect to ecosystem preservation.

Africa Regions

The large continent of Africa holds a great diversity of geographical characteristics and ethnic groups. It is difficult to briefly describe the water-related culture and refer it to social aspects. The Sahara occupies the north part of the African continent, where water scarcity is always a threat to the population. The expansion of the desert to the south threatens the destiny of Lake Chad. The Lake may disappear depending on the climate change in its watershed. The northern part of Africa is an influential area of Islam that has similar practices of water use to those in other Islamic areas. Central Africa and the west Coast of Africa hold relatively abundant water. In these areas, reservoirs were constructed, and agricultural activity rapidly developed supporting rapid population growth. People suffer from public health problems mainly due to poor access to safe and clean water. Sanitation is poor, which is also one of the main problems in public health, including the high mortality of infants.

Water-related culture of the people was simple in the past because of a relatively simple life. However, water is contaminated in many ways by poor urban sanitation, use of agrochemicals, chemical fertilizers, and mining and industrial activities. Lake Victoria is the most important freshwater resource in the region. This lake shows all aspects of contamination. The water contamination issue is very critical for the development of the regions around the lake.

The east Coast of Africa holds many important lakes along the Great Rift Valley. Due to low precipitation in the region, water scarcity is one of the main problems. The people have a traditional approach to water use and culture. Among agricultural people, there is a traditional use of water in rainfall agriculture. Nomad people have their own approach to water. However, the countries in the region are very young and face the difficulties of the establishment of modern nations. Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi are important fresh water resources, as well as unique ecosystems. The relation of cultural practices to eutrophication of Lake Malawi and other African lakes is discussed below in Section 2.5.2. of this chapter.

South Africa also faces water scarcity problems. However, there are rich experiences of advanced water supply technology, even reusing sewage effluent for drinking water for white communities in the past. This now provides a solution to water problems for all people in the countries in this area.

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